Marie Curie was a Polish and French physicist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and the only woman to win the Nobel Prize twice, and the only person to win the Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.
Her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself. She discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive.
She was known for her honesty and moderate lifestyle. She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates. In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium isolation process so that the scientific community could do research unhindered. She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her. She and her husband often refused awards and medals. Marie Curie died in 1934 in France, of aplastic anemia from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I. She is also known as Madame Curie. She was voted the “most inspirational woman in science”.
The damaging effects of ionizing radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed. Decades of exposure left her chronically ill and nearly blind from cataracts, and ultimately caused her death. She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark. Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the world war.
Because of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle. Even her books are highly radioactive. Her papers are kept in lead-lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing. Marie Curie’s collection in France, many of her personal possessions-from her furniture to her books require protective clothing to be safely handled. Irene, like her mother Marie Curie, entered the field of scientific research and credited with the discovery of artificial radiation. Irene too died of a radiation related illness leukemia in 1956.
Marie Curie, who discovered the radioactive elements and used for the benefits of mankind, ultimately had to succumb to the damaging effects of those radioactive elements. During her period, she did not have a well-equipped and well-structured laboratory and interestingly she kept a sample of radium next to her bed as a night light. She was unaware of the fact that the radioactive elements were damaging to her health all the time they handled and worked on them. Had she worked in containment levels / system, she would have lived for many more years and would have contributed many more to science and to the benefit to mankind. The lesson, we should take is to prevent self and community by having safety measures in any field of work which necessitates either it is chemical or Microbiological, which we often tend to ignore!!
Biocontainment may seem like a relatively new topic for the industry. It is important to recall that in 1955, the vaccine industry was stunned by the “Cutter Incident,” in which a breach of containment caused thousands of children to be exposed to the live polio virus after the administration of Polio vaccine, resulting in paralysis and death of many of them. It was one of the worst biological disaster in the American history.
The concept of Bio safety had started in the 1940’s by US Military. The US Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] defines four safety levels for facilities that handle potentially hazardous microbes: Biosafety Level BSL1, BSL2, BSL3 and BSL4. In the European Union, the same biosafety levels are defined in a directive. In Canada the four levels are known as Containment Levels. World Health Organization [WHO] has defined the same bio safety levels.
Biosafety levels [BSL] are used to identify the protective measures needed to protect personnel working, the environment and the public. These are determined through biological risk assessments. Each BSL level builds upon on the previous level thereby creating layer upon layer of constraints and barriers. They also heavily influence the overall design of the facility where biological products like vaccines are manufactured.
The levels are determined majorly by:
- Risks related to containment.
- Severity of infection.
- Transmissibility.
- Nature of the work conducted.
- Origin of the microbe.
- Route of exposure.
BSL–1
As the lowest of the four, biosafety level 1 applies low-risk microbes that pose little to no threat of infection in healthy adults. E.g non-pathogenic strain of E. coli. It typically consists of research taking place without the use of special contaminant equipment. It is not required to be isolated from surrounding facilities, activities that require only standard microbial practices.
BSL-2
This biosafety level covers work with agents associated with human diseases [i.e., pathogenic or infections organisms] that pose a moderate health hazard. E.g HIV, Staphylococcus aureus [staph infections]. It maintains the same standard microbial practices as BSL-1, but also includes enhanced measures due to the potential risk. Personnel working are expected to take even greater care to prevent injuries such as cuts and other breaches of the skin, as well as ingestion and mucous membrane exposures. Access to a BSL-2 area is far more restrictive. Outside personnel, or those with an increased risk of contamination, are often restricted from entering when work is being conducted.
- Appropriate personal protective equipment [PPE] must be worn, including gowning and gloves. Eye protection and face shields can also be worn, as needed.
- All procedures that can cause infection from aerosols or splashes are performed within a biological safety cabinet [BSC].
- An autoclave or an alternative method of decontamination is available for disposals.
- The facility / laboratory has self-closing, lockable doors.
- Biohazard warning signs.
BSL-3
BSL-3 typically includes work on microbes that are either indigenous or exotic, and can cause serious or potentially lethal disease through inhalation. E.g Bacteria that causes tuberculosis. The microbes are so serious that the work is often strictly controlled and registered with the appropriate government agencies. Personnel are also under medical surveillance and could receive immunizations for microbes they work with. Access to a BSL-3 is restricted and controlled at all times.
- Standard personal protective equipment must be worn, and respirators might be required.
- Solid-front wrap around gowns, scrub suits or coveralls are often required.
- All work with microbes must be performed within an appropriate Bio Safety Cabinet.
- Access hands-free sink and eyewash are available near the exit.
- Sustained directional airflow to draw air into the area from clean areas towards potentially contaminated areas [Exhaust air cannot be re-circulated].
- A self-closing set of locking doors with access away from general building corridors.
BSL-4
BSL-4 are rare. However, some do exist in a small number of places in the US and around the world. As the highest level of biological safety, a BSL-4 consists of work with highly dangerous and exotic microbes. Infections caused by these types of microbes are frequently fatal, and come without treatment or vaccines. Examples of such microbes include Ebola and Marburg viruses. BSL-4 is extremely isolated—often located in a separate building or in an isolated and restricted zone of the building. The facility / laboratory also features a dedicated supply and exhaust air, as well as vacuum lines and decontamination systems.
In addition to BSL-3, BSL-4 have the following containment requirements:
- Personnel are required to change clothing before entering, shower upon exiting.
- Decontamination of all materials before exiting
- Personnel must wear appropriate personal protective equipment from prior BSL levels, as well as a full body, air-supplied, positive pressure suit.
- A Class III biological safety cabinet.
Note-The images given for representation in this blog are taken from Google Images. Many thanks for Google.
“Life is not easy for any of us. But what of that? We must have perseverance and above all confidence in ourselves. We must believe that we are gifted for something and that this thing must be attained.”- Marie Curie.
Very informative. Keep us enlightened Muthu
Thank you Subramaniane.